Рефераты. Business at work

is been carried out and the extend to which any resources under their

control are being used to achieve the organisation’s objectives. Much of

this information relates to the productivity of labour, the utilisation of

machine capacity and the rate at which materials and other inputs are being

consumed.

Middle management also needs a great deal of financial information about

the costs of the resources consumed in relation to output. This financial

data can be used to determine and monitor total costs, revenues, profits

and the achievement of business objectives for example, it will be possible

to identify any fall-off in productivity or rise in labour costs which

might contribute to arise in unit labour costs or to detect the excessive

use of materials which might suggest an increased in wastage.

Senior management

So far, I have mainly considered the need for information that is processed

and generated from sources within the organisation. At senior level,

however, information from internal sources often has to be supported by

information derive from external sources to help managers ensure that the

resources and their control are used as efficiently as possible in

achieving business objectives. Decision making at senior management level

has a major influence on the success or failure of the organisation. Any

decisions concerned with controlling the organisation, assessing its

performance, planning its future and initiating action must be supported by

all relevant information.

Decision making at senior level in areas such as business strategy and

planning requires information about broad trends rather than detailed

information needed to make many routine decisions on day-to-day matters at

lower levels of the organisation. Senior management need information about:

. developments in initial costs and sale trends

. overall profitability, and the respective contribution of each part of

the business

. capital requirements, and availability of internal funds and the cost

and sources of external capital

. manpower and skills requirements

. forecast of demand of the organisation’s markets

. the impact on business of any changes in the economic, political,

social and legal environment.

Superior

Prep Line manager Prep

group

group

Staff Subordinates

Staff

relationships

relationships

Figure 1.9: Communication network

Communication channels and methods

The communication channel refers to the means by which information is

communicated. The actual choice of communication channel depends upon a

combination of:

. the need for an immediate feedback or response

. costs

. speed and urgency

. the number and location of the people who need the information

. the degree of confidentiality and security required

. the desired degree of formality

. convenience

. the complexity and amount of detail to be conveyed

. the type of information to be communicated

. the need to keep a record of the communication.

Business information can be communicated in many ways. Methods include:

. written reports

. instruction manuals

. letters, circulars and memoranda

. material posted on notice board

. in-house magazines and newspapers

. sheets of figures

. information on standard forms

. graphs, charts, drawings and photographed

. video, television and other audio-visual techniques

. meetings and interviews

. public address announcements

. electronic mail

. network messaging

. fax

. telephone and voice mail

. pager device

. video conferencing

Whatever communication method is used, the information sent should be

relevant and avoid superfluous comments and unnecessary detail. The

information communicated to a supervisor on a factory may have to include

an exact description of the operations to be carried out. In contrast, much

broader information is supplied to middle and senior management. Senior

managers may only require general indicators and a broad description of the

developments that need to be considered when assessing the organisation’s

performance, setting objectives and deciding upon strategies.

Exception reporting

To ensure tht the information provided to management is relevant, clear and

concise and makes effective use of managers’ time, some organisations

stipulate that managers are only provided with dada relating to exceptional

developments. Middle management, for example, may only receive information

connected with performance measurements that deviate by more than an agreed

percentage from their targets. The information dealing with exceptional

performance should also be supported by brief statements of the internal

and/or external factors that may have contributed to any exceptional

performance. Exception reporting makes more effective use of the time and

skills that middle management devotes to decision making and to initiating

and controlling actions.

Downward information flows

A downward information flow describes the provision of information by a

superior to an immediate subordinate. It is, therefore, concerned with

internal communications as part of a formal communications channels. A

downward information flow can cover:

. issuing instructions on the tasks that have to be carried out by a

subordinate and setting objectives, such as the target data for

completing the work

. requesting information concerning the area of work for which

subordinates are responsible

. communicating the organisation’s procedures, working methods and

practices and the rules and regulations

. given feedback on subordinate’s performance in relation to his or her

objectives and targets

. motivating people and encouraging attitudes that raise productivity

and improve quality.

Some information will not come from an employee’s immediate superior but

from other parts of the organisations. For example, when employees first

start work they receive general information about the structure and goals

of the organisation from the personnel department. However, for information

that relates to work undertaken by the subordinate, the communication

channel should be from superior to immediate subordinate.

Upward information flows

An upward information flow along a vertical information channel is from a

subordinate to a superior. This might be feedback from a downward flow or

the communication may originate directly from subordinates. An upward

information flow can cover:

. responding to a superior’s request for information on some aspect of

work for which the subordinate is responsible

. informing managers about the subordinate’s own performance, problems

or their personal ambitions in relation, for example, to promotion or

opportunities for developing new skills.

. passing on information about other employees in the subordinate’s

section and relations with sections with which there is a direct link

. submitting ideas on improving working methods and solving work

problems.

In the interests of effective working relations. Most organisations expect

subordinates to report formally through their immediate supervisor or

manager. However, they are likely to communicate in formally with managers

higher up the hierarchy and in some situations, such as grievance

procedure, may go directly to a more senior manager than their immediate

superior.

Horizontal information flow

In addition to upward and downward flows, there are also horizontal

information flows between people of the same status. Because many

operations within an organisation must work very closely together, there

must be formal arrangements for the exchange of information between

sections and departments. The production department, for example, must have

close contact with the purchasing department when it is considering changes

to materials and components or introducing advanced machinery and

equipment. Production staff also has to exchange information with employees

in requirement, training, marketing and transport.

The quality of information.

The essential characteristics of an efficient information system are that

the right people receive the right information at the right time. The

information communicated should be:

. internally relevant to the needs of the recipient

. accurate and concise

. comprehensive, avoiding a time-consuming request for extra

information

. clear – it must be presented and communicated without ambiguity or

possible misunderstanding.

The person receiving the information must have confidence in the ability of

the sender and, therefore have the confidence to take decisions based on

the contents of the communication. The person sending the information must

be confident that the receiver has the ability to understand, use and take

effective decisions based upon the information supplied.

This information system, the communication media and the kind of

information provided should be review on a regular basis. The information

system should be adjusted to take into account any developments within the

organisation such as changes in its organisational structure or management

style. This review should also take into account external factors such as

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